We have seen, how tres are intertwined with every aspect of human experience. Trees surround us all the time in our daily lives, even in urban areas. They shelter and protect us from bad weather and enhance the air we breathe. They provide a roof over our heads and help to feed and clothe us. They appear in our dreams, they mark our places of importance, they guard our sacred sites. So it is no surprise that it is not only in Ireland or Europe but all over the world that we find examples of tree folklore as an integral part of everyday life. Indeed, one of the most fascinating things about the folklore of trees is how similar themes are found in every culture on earth.
One universal theme that emerges is the tree as the abode of gods and spirits. In Europe we have seen how these ideas linger, with trees such as the oak, but this phenomenon is by no means confined to Europe alone. So to take one example, in India the coconut tree and its fruit are esteemed as sacred to Sri, the goddess of prosperity. Similarly in west Africa large silk cotton trees are believed to be inhabited by the god of the forest, Huntin, and are honoured with girdles of palm leaves and the sacrifice of fowl. The Dieri tribe of central Australia believe that certain sacred trees contain the souls of their ancestors and are on no account to be cut down, and much the same attitude prevails among the Miao Kia people of southern China, where every village is guarded by a sacred tree believed to be inhabited by the soul of their first ancestor. A natural extension of this is the idea that trees themselves have souls or spirits. In Africa the peoples of the Congo region traditionally believed that all things could be divided into two categories: people living and dead, gods and unborn children are all muntu. Animals, stones and everything else are kintu. Trees are classified as muntu, however, because like people, they have roots and a head, and the word of the ancestors lives within them.
Another universal theme is that of the tree as the link between earth and sky, this world and the next. Voodoo ceremonies revolve around the Poteau-mitan, a post in the centre of the temple which links the worlds of heaven and earth and represents the tree of life. The Oglala Sioux of Dakota saw the world as a sacred hoop with a flowering tree at its centre. To the Mayans the silk cotton was the sacred world tree which supported the heavens and stood at the centre of the earth. The tree's roots, trunk and foliage represented the underworld, world and heaven. It was represented as a leafy cross and symbolised life itself. The shamans of the Central Asian Buryat and Altai climb a birch tree as part of their initiation cere-monies, symbolising the route they must take to ascend to heaven.
Needless to say, trees have also been used universally in spells and charms, to ensure fertility, to repel evil and affect cures. For example, we find that among the Mundaris in Assam every village has its sacred grove, whose deities are held responsible for the fertility of the crops and so are honoured at all the agricultural festivals. With a preoccupation shared right around the globe, pregnant women in certain tribes in the Congo make garments for themselves out of the bark of a particular sacred tree, in the belief that it will deliver them from the dangers of child bearing.
However, it is not necessary to hold such traditional beliefs to appreciate trees. Even when they are not regarded as sacred, trees have provided inspiration as metaphors and objects of beauty. Trees are often mentioned in the bible, for example, and Jesus frequently used them in his parables. For instance, in Matthew's gospel Jesus compared the message of the kingdom of Heaven to a mustard seed: 'It is the smallest of all seeds but when it grows up, it is the biggest of all plants. It becomes a tree, so that birds come and make their nests in its branches'. In Buddhism the bodhi tree has become famous as a symbol of wisdom, as it was under such a tree that Buddha first had his awakening. Finally of course, trees have provided inspiration for countless poets and artists down the ages. It will do to quote just one example from Shakespeare, where old age is compared to a tree in autumn: ‘That time of year thou mayst in me behold / When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang / Upon those boughs which shake against the cold/Bare ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang'.
But even if we are not great religious leaders or artists, at a fundamental level it is possible for us all to connect with trees. For trees are not just objects of beauty or utility, but fellow living beings that breathe and grow and struggle to survive and recreate, just as we do ourselves. This is the real source, the heart of our fascination with trees and it will last as long as both we and they do.