There is a true and a false philosophy. As froth in new-made wine swims upon the top and hides the true wine below, likewise there is a froth of sophistry and pseudo-philosophy swimming at the top of true philosophy; it looks like knowledge, but it is the outcome of ignorance, gilded and varnished to deceive the vulgar. It is like a parasite growing upon the tree of knowledge, drawing the sap out of the true tree and converting it into poison. The intellectual working of the brain alone is not sufficient to give birth to a physician; the true physician is not he who has merely heard of the truth, but he who feels the truth, who sees it before him as clearly as the light of the sun, who hears it as he would hear the noise of the cataract of the Rhine or the whistling of the storm upon the ocean, who smells it and tastes it, it being sweet to him as honey or bitter as gall. Nature produces diseases and effects their cures, and where, then, could be found a better teacher than Nature herself? That alone which we see and feel and perceive constitutes true knowledge, not that of which we are merely informed in books and which is not confirmed by experience.

The knowledge of Nature as it is--not as we imagine it to be--constitutes true philosophy. He who merely sees the external appearance of things is not a philosopher; the true philosopher sees the reality, not merely the outward appearance. He who knows the sun and the moon has a sun and a moon in him, and he can tell how they look, even if his eyes are shut. Thus the true physician sees in himself the whole constitution of the Microcosm of man, with all its parts. He sees the constitution of his patient as if the latter were a clear crystal, in which not even a single hair could escape detection. He sees him as he would the stones and pebbles at the bottom of a clear well. This is the philosophy upon which the true art of medicine is based. Not that your physical eyes are able to show you these things, but it is Nature herself who teaches it to you. Nature is the universal mother of all, and if you are in harmony with her--if the mirror of your mind has not been made blind by the cobwebs of speculations, misconceptions, and erroneous theories--she will hold up before you a mirror in which you will see the truth. But he who is not true himself will not see the truth as it is taught by Nature, and it is far easier to study a number of books and to learn by heart a number of scientific theories than to enoble one's own character to such an extent as to enter into perfect harmony with Nature and to be able to see the truth.

We have seen, how tres are intertwined with every aspect of human experience. Trees surround us all the time in our daily lives, even in urban areas. They shelter and protect us from bad weather and enhance the air we breathe. They provide a roof over our heads and help to feed and clothe us. They appear in our dreams, they mark our places of importance, they guard our sacred sites. So it is no surprise that it is not only in Ireland or Europe but all over the world that we find examples of tree folklore as an integral part of everyday life. Indeed, one of the most fascinating things about the folklore of trees is how similar themes are found in every culture on earth.

One universal theme that emerges is the tree as the abode of gods and spirits. In Europe we have seen how these ideas linger, with trees such as the oak, but this phenomenon is by no means confined to Europe alone. So to take one example, in India the coconut tree and its fruit are esteemed as sacred to Sri, the goddess of prosperity. Similarly in west Africa large silk cotton trees are believed to be inhabited by the god of the forest, Huntin, and are honoured with girdles of palm leaves and the sacrifice of fowl. The Dieri tribe of central Australia believe that certain sacred trees contain the souls of their ancestors and are on no account to be cut down, and much the same attitude prevails among the Miao Kia people of southern China, where every village is guarded by a sacred tree believed to be inhabited by the soul of their first ancestor. A natural extension of this is the idea that trees themselves have souls or spirits. In Africa the peoples of the Congo region traditionally believed that all things could be divided into two categories: people living and dead, gods and unborn children are all muntu. Animals, stones and everything else are kintu. Trees are classified as muntu, however, because like people, they have roots and a head, and the word of the ancestors lives within them.

Another universal theme is that of the tree as the link between earth and sky, this world and the next. Voodoo ceremonies revolve around the Poteau-mitan, a post in the centre of the temple which links the worlds of heaven and earth and represents the tree of life. The Oglala Sioux of Dakota saw the world as a sacred hoop with a flowering tree at its centre. To the Mayans the silk cotton was the sacred world tree which supported the heavens and stood at the centre of the earth. The tree's roots, trunk and foliage represented the underworld, world and heaven. It was represented as a leafy cross and symbolised life itself. The shamans of the Central Asian Buryat and Altai climb a birch tree as part of their initiation cere-monies, symbolising the route they must take to ascend to heaven.

Needless to say, trees have also been used universally in spells and charms, to ensure fertility, to repel evil and affect cures. For example, we find that among the Mundaris in Assam every village has its sacred grove, whose deities are held responsible for the fertility of the crops and so are honoured at all the agricultural festivals. With a preoccupation shared right around the globe, pregnant women in certain tribes in the Congo make garments for themselves out of the bark of a particular sacred tree, in the belief that it will deliver them from the dangers of child bearing.

However, it is not necessary to hold such traditional beliefs to appreciate trees. Even when they are not regarded as sacred, trees have provided inspiration as metaphors and objects of beauty. Trees are often mentioned in the bible, for example, and Jesus frequently used them in his parables. For instance, in Matthew's gospel Jesus compared the message of the kingdom of Heaven to a mustard seed: 'It is the smallest of all seeds but when it grows up, it is the biggest of all plants. It becomes a tree, so that birds come and make their nests in its branches'. In Buddhism the bodhi tree has become famous as a symbol of wisdom, as it was under such a tree that Buddha first had his awakening. Finally of course, trees have provided inspiration for countless poets and artists down the ages. It will do to quote just one example from Shakespeare, where old age is compared to a tree in autumn: ‘That time of year thou mayst in me behold / When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang / Upon those boughs which shake against the cold/Bare ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang'.

But even if we are not great religious leaders or artists, at a fundamental level it is possible for us all to connect with trees. For trees are not just objects of beauty or utility, but fellow living beings that breathe and grow and struggle to survive and recreate, just as we do ourselves. This is the real source, the heart of our fascination with trees and it will last as long as both we and they do.

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